Online Water Monitoring Method as a Water Security Tool: A Feasibility View

Since the tragic event on September 11, 2001 (9/11), homeland security has been the center of major attention not only in the United States but also around the world. Among homeland security agenda, more concerns on drinking water system have been drawn into the forefront attention from the public and water industry. Governmental agencies have been called upon to strongly protect the water resources from becoming a possible terror target. The online monitoring of a water system offers the potential to reduce the possible danger from a terrorist contamination as well as from unintentional chemical spills. As potential terrorist contaminants, seven chemical compounds (aldicarb, cycloheximide, dicrotophos, nicotine, sodium arsenate, sodium cyanide, and sodium fluoroacetate) were studied at different doses, in order to determine their detectability when they are present in a water system, including intake, treatment, and distribution. These contaminants were monitored by measuring simple water quality parameters such as conductivity, pH, chlorine residual, turbidity, total organic carbon (TOC), and UV254. Results indicated that the contaminants used for the study were detected at certain toxicity concentrations through the online water quality monitoring method. This method provides a useful tool for watching water resources against possible terror attacks, and also keeping safe water quality.     

Nitrate and ammonium ions removal from groundwater by a hybrid system of zero-valent iron combined with adsorbents

Nitrate (NO(3)(-)) is a commonly found contaminant in groundwater and surface water. It has created a major water quality problem worldwide. The laboratory batch experiments were conducted to investigate the feasibility of HCl-treated zero-valent iron (Fe(0)) combined with different adsorbents as hybrid systems for simultaneous removal of nitrate (NO(3)(-)) and ammonium (NH(4)(+)) ions from aqueous solution. The maximum NO(3)(-) removal in combined Fe(0)-granular activated carbon (GAC), Fe(0)-filtralite and Fe(0)-sepiolite systems was 86, 96 and 99%, respectively, at 45 °C for 24 h reaction time. The NO(3)(-) removal rate increased with the increase in initial NO(3)(-) concentration. The NO(3)(-) removal efficiency by hybrid systems was in the order of sepiolite > filtralite > GAC. The NH(4)(+) produced during the denitrification process by Fe(0) was successfully removed by the adsorbents, with the removal efficiency in the order of GAC > sepiolite > filtralite. Results of the present study suggest that the use of a hybrid system could be a promising technology for achieving simultaneous removal of NO(3)(-) and NH(4)(+) ions from aqueous solution.     

Demonstration of a high throughput on-board hydrogen generation reactor system using aluminum coil as fuel for a vehicle

A novel on-board hydrogen generation concept using Al coil with NaOH was investigated. The reaction rate was successfully controlled by introducing a pumping system for the NaOH solution. The time for the flow to develop fully was mainly dependent on the solution temperature, and the fastest start time recorded was 60 sec at a solution temperature of 70°C. The maximum H₂ generation rate was 200 L min^–1 with a prototype design of the on-board hydrogen generation system 1/8 times the size of a full-size reactor. The H₂ generation process coupled with the solution pumping system was simulated with three-dimensional fluid dynamic software, and the calculated H₂ flow and temperature rise of the system were validated with experimental data.     

Effects of a dynamic membrane formed with polyethylene glycol on the ultrafiltration of natural organic matter

The formation of a dynamic membrane (DM) was investigated using polyethylene glycol (PEG) (molecular weight of 35000 g/mol, concentration of 1 g/L). Two natural organic matters (NOM), Dongbok Lake NOM (DLNOM) and Suwannee River NOM (SRNOM) were used in the ultrafiltration experiments along with PEG. To evaluate the effects of the DM with PEG on ultrafiltration, various transport experiments were conducted, and the analyses of the NOM in the membrane feed and permeate were performed using high performance size exclusion chromatography, and the effective pore size distribution (effective PSD) and effective molecular weight cut off (effective MWCO) were determined. The advantages of DM formed with PEG can be summarized as follows: (1) PEG interferes with NOM transmission through the ultrafiltration membrane pores by increasing the retention coefficient of NOM in UF membranes, and (2) low removal of NOM by the DM is affected by external factors, such as pressure increases during UF membrane filtration, which decreases the effective PSD and effective MWCO of UF membranes. However, a disadvantage of the DM with PEG was severe flux decline; thus, one must be mindful of both the positive and negative influences of the DM when optimizing the UF performance of the membrane.     

Warning signals confer advantage to prey in competition with predators: bumblebees steal nests from insectivorous birds

Aposematic (warning) signals of prey help predators to recognize the defended distasteful or poisonous prey that should be avoided. The evolution of aposematism in the context of predation has been in the center of modern ecology for a long time. But, the possible roles of aposematic signals in other ecological contexts have been largely ignored. Here we address the role of aposematic signals in competition between prey and predators. Bumblebees use visual and auditory aposematic signals to warn predators about their defenses. For 2 years, we observed competition for nestboxes between chemically defended insects, Bombus ardens (and possibly also Bombus ignitus), and cavity nesting birds (Parus minor and Poecile varius). Bumblebees settled in 16 and 9 % of nestboxes (in 2010 and 2011 breeding seasons, respectively) that contained bird nests at the advanced stage of nest building or at the stage of egg laying. Presence of bumblebees prevented the birds from continuing the breeding activities in the nestboxes, while insects took over the birds’ nests (a form of kleptoparasitism). Playback experiments showed that the warning buzz by bumblebees contributed to the success in ousting the birds from their nests. This demonstrates that aposematic signals may be beneficial also in the context of resource competition.     

Degradation and reduction of acute toxicity of environmentally persistent perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) using VUV photolysis and TiO2 photocatalysis in acidic and basic aqueous solutions

Degradation and toxicity reduction of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) were investigated using TiO₂ adsorption, vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) photolysis, and VUV/TiO₂ photocatalysis in acidic and basic aqueous solutions. Chemical analyses of PFOA and its selected by-products and an acute toxicity assessment using the luminescent bacteria Vibrio fischeri (Microtox®) were conducted during and after the various treatment methods. PFOA was found to be best treated by VUV/TiO₂ at pH 4 with HClO₄, as illustrated by the almost complete degradation of PFOA within 360?min and rapid removal of acute microbial toxicity within 60?min. This difference in the efficiency may be attributed to the strong oxidation effectiveness of the radical species generated in acidic media and the electron scavenger effect of the addition of HClO₄ in VUV/TiO₂ photocatalysis. In addition, the proposed method could effectively decompose other perfluorocarboxylic acid (PFCA) species (C₃–C₇ perfluoroalkyl groups) if the initial intermediates formed were longer-chain species that degraded stepwise into shorter-chain compounds by VUV photolysis and VUV/TiO₂ photocatalysis in acidic and basic aqueous solutions.     

Characteristics of metal contamination in paddy soils from three industrial cities in South Korea

Paddy soil contamination is directly linked to human dietary exposure to toxic chemicals via crop consumption. In Korea, rice paddy fields are often located around industrial complexes, a major anthropogenic source of metals. In this study, rice paddy soils were collected from 50 sites in three industrial cities to investigate the contamination characteristics and ecological risk of metals in the soils. The cities studied and their major industries are as follows: Ulsan (petrochemical, nonferrous, automobile, and shipbuilding), Pohang (iron and steel), and Gwangyang (iron and steel, nonmetallic, and petrochemical). Thirteen metals (Al, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, V, and Zn) were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectrometry (ICP–OES). The mean concentration of Cd (1.98 mg/kg) exceeded the soil quality guideline of Canada (1.4 mg/kg), whereas concentrations of other metals were under the standards of both Korea and Canada. Generally, levels of metal concentrations decreased with increasing distance from industrial complexes. Among the three cities, Pohang showed high concentrations of Zn (142.2 mg/kg), and Ulsan and Gwangyang showed high concentrations of Cr (33.9 mg/kg) and Ba (126.4 mg/kg), respectively. These contamination patterns were influenced by the different major industries of each city, which was clearly demonstrated by the principal component analysis results. Pollution indices suggested that As, Cd, Pb, and Zn were enriched in the paddy soils via anthropogenic activities. Comprehensive potential ecological risk indices were at considerable levels for most sites, especially because of major contributions from As and Cd, which can pose potential ecological threats.

     

As(III) adsorption onto Fe-impregnated food waste biochar: experimental investigation,modeling, and optimization using response surface methodology

Biochar derived from food waste was modified with Fe to enhance its adsorption capacity for As(III), which is the most toxic form of As. The synthesis of Fe-impregnated food waste biochar (Fe-FWB) was optimized using response surface methodology (RSM), and the pyrolysis time (1.0, 2.5, and 4.0 h), temperature (300, 450, and 600 °C), and Fe concentration (0.1, 0.3, and 0.5 M) were set as independent variables. The pyrolysis temperature and Fe concentration significantly influenced the As(III) removal, but the effect of pyrolysis time was insignificant. The optimum conditions for the synthesis of Fe-FWB were 1 h and 300 °C with a 0.42-M Fe concentration. Both physical and chemical properties of the optimized Fe-FWB were studied. They were also used for kinetic, equilibrium, thermodynamic, pH, and competing anion studies. Kinetic adsorption experiments demonstrated that the pseudo-second-order model had a superior fit for As(III) adsorption than the pseudo-first-order model. The maximum adsorption capacity derived from the Langmuir model was 119.5 mg/g, which surpassed that of other adsorbents published in the literature. Maximum As(III) adsorption occurred at an elevated pH in the range from 3 to 11 owing to the presence of As(III) as H₂AsO₃^? above a pH of 9.2. A slight reduction in As(III) adsorption was observed in the existence of bicarbonate, hydrogen phosphate, nitrate, and sulfate even at a high concentration of 10 mM. This study demonstrates that aqueous solutions can be treated using Fe-FWB, which is an affordable and readily available resource for As(III) removal.

     

The effect of estimated PAR uncertainties on the physiological processes of biosphere models

Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) energy reaching on the vegetated surface is a key determinant of plant physiological processes. Most of biosphere or crop models use the ratio of PAR to incoming solar radiation (R_s), PAR/R_s, to convert R_s into PAR in order to reduce weather data-input requirements. Several existing models simply specify a constant ratio, PAR/R_s = 0.5. However, some field experiments have reported that the ratio PAR/R_s may not be constant. Previous empirical equations of PAR/R_s were derived based on the data of monthly or daily timescales collected from only a few measurement sites, hence they may not be appropriate to be used in current global biosphere models usually with hourly simulation time steps. Here, we represent the exponential correlation between PAR/R_s and sky clearness index (0-1) using hourly data from 54 Ameriflux measurement sites. It is found that PAR/R_s increases up to 0.6 in cloudy conditions when the clearness index (CI) is below ∼0.2, whereas it is nearly constant at ∼0.42 when CI is above 0.2. When the identified empirical equation is used in the model simulation, it results in −4 to 2% difference in the stomatal conductance compared to that using the constant ratio PAR/R_s = 0.5.